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GIS allows multiple layers of information to be displayed on a single map.
Illustration courtesy U.S. Government Accountability Office
NeogeographyNeogeography is a controversial term that often describes user-generated location data or “citizen geographer” platforms. Neogeography may describe projects as varied as the massive collaborative effort of OpenStreetMap and auto-generated location tags in social media.PhotozincographyThe labor-intensive process of photozincography anticipated GIS in the 19th century. This process used zinc plates to draft different layers of a map, and a large-process camera to combine the layers into a single image.Earth Science Information Center
To find out more about how GIS is used in your local community, contact your nearest Earth Science Information Center (ESIC). Staff from the US Geological Survey (USGS) answer questions about aerial photographs, maps, satellite imagery, computer programs, data formats, data standards, and digital cartographic data. To contact your local ESIC, call 1-888-ASK-USGS or visit the website.A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. By relating seemingly unrelated data, GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand spatial patterns and relationships.GIS technology is a crucial part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House defines as “the technology, policies, standards, human resources, and related activities necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”GIS can use any information that includes location. The location can be expressed in many different ways, such as latitude and longitude, address, or ZIP code.Many different types of information can be compared and contrasted using GIS. The system can include data about people, such as population, income, or education level. It can include information about the landscape, such as the location of streams, different kinds of vegetation, and different kinds of soil. It can include information about the sites of factories, farms, and schools; or storm drains, roads, and electric power lines.With GIS technology, people can compare the locations of different things in order to discover how they relate to each other. For example, using GIS, a single map could include sites that produce pollution, such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to pollution, such as wetlands and rivers. Such a map would help people determine where water supplies are most at risk.Data CaptureData FormatsGIS applications include both hardware and software systems. These applications may include cartographic data, photographic data, digital data, or data in spreadsheets.Cartographic data are already in map form, and may include such information as the location of rivers, roads, hills, and valleys. Cartographic data may also include survey data, mapping information which can be directly entered into a GIS.Photographic interpretation is a major part of GIS. Photo interpretation involves analyzing aerial photographs and assessing the features that appear.Digital data can also be entered into GIS. An example of this kind of information is computer data collected by satellites that show land use—the location of farms, towns, and forests.Remote sensing provides another tool that can be integrated into a GIS. Remote sensing includes imagery and other data collected from satellites, balloons, and drones.Finally, GIS can also include data in table or spreadsheet form, such as population demographics. Demographics can range from age, income, and ethnicity to recent purchases and Internet browsing preferences.GIS technology allows all these different types of information, no matter their source or original format, to be overlaid on top of one another on a single map. GIS uses location as the key index variable to relate these seemingly unrelated data.Putting information into GIS is called data capture. Data that are already in digital form, such as most tables and images taken by satellites, can simply be uploaded into GIS. Maps, however, must first be scanned, or converted to digital format.The two major types of GIS file formats are raster and vector. Raster formats are grids of cells or pixels. Raster formats are useful for storing GIS data that vary, such as elevation or satellite imagery. Vector formats are polygons that use points (called nodes) and lines. Vector formats are useful for storing GIS data with firm borders, such as school districts or streets.Spatial RelationshipsGIS technology can be used to display spatial relationships and linear networks. Spatial relationships may display topography, such as agricultural fields and streams. They may also display land-use patterns, such as the location of parks and housing complexes.Linear networks, sometimes called geometric networks, are often represented by roads, rivers, and public utility grids in a GIS. A line on a map may indicate a road or highway. With GIS layers, however, that road may indicate the boundary of a school district, public park, or other demographic or land-use area. Using diverse data capture, the linear network of a river may be mapped on a GIS to indicate the stream flow of different tributaries.GIS must make the information from all the various maps and sources align, so they fit together on the same scale. A scale is the relationship between the distance on a map and the actual distance on Earth.Often, GIS must manipulate data because different maps have different projections. A projection is the method of transferring information from Earth’s curved surface to a flat piece of paper or computer screen. Different types of projections accomplish this task in different ways, but all result in some distortion. To transfer a curved, three-dimensional shape onto a flat surface inevitably requires stretching some parts and squeezing others.A world map can show either the correct sizes of countries or their correct shapes, but it can’t do both. GIS takes data from maps that were made using different projections and combines them so all the information can be displayed using one common projection.GIS MapsOnce all of the desired data have been entered into a GIS system, they can be combined to produce a wide variety of individual maps, depending on which data layers are included. One of the most common uses of GIS technology involves comparing natural features with human activity.For instance, GIS maps can display what manmade features are near certain natural features, such as which homes and businesses are in areas prone to flooding.GIS technology also allows to “dig deep” in a specific area with many kinds of information. Maps of a single city or neighborhood can relate such information as average income, book sales, or voting patterns. Any GIS data layer can be added or subtracted to the same map.GIS maps can be used to show information about numbers and density. For example, GIS can show how many doctors there are in a neighborhood compared with the area’s population.With GIS technology, researchers can also look at change over time. They can use satellite data to study topics such as the advance and retreat of ice cover in polar regions, and how that coverage has changed through time. A police precinct might study changes in crime data to help determine where to assign officers.One important use of time-based GIS technology involves creating time-lapse photography that shows processes occurring over large areas and long periods of time. For example, data showing the movement of fluid in ocean or air currents help scientists better understand how moisture and heat energy move around the globe.GIS technology sometimes allows users to access further information about specific areas on a map. A person can point to a spot on a digital map to find other information stored in the GIS about that location. For example, a user might click on a school to find how many students are enrolled, how many students there are per teacher, or what sports facilities the school has.GIS systems are often used to produce three-dimensional images. This is useful, for example, to geologists studying earthquake faults.GIS technology makes updating maps much easier than updating maps created manually. Updated data can simply be added to the existing GIS program. A new map can then be printed or displayed on screen. This skips the traditional process of drawing a map, which can be time-consuming and expensive.GIS JobsPeople working in many different fields use GIS technology. GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, and development planning.Many retail businesses use GIS to help them determine where to locate a new store. Marketing companies use GIS to decide to whom to market those stores and restaurants, and where that marketing should be.Scientists use GIS to compare population statistics to resources such as drinking water. Biologists use GIS to track animal migration patterns.City, state, or federal officials use GIS to help plan their response in the case of a natural disaster such as an earthquake or hurricane. GIS maps can show these officials what neighborhoods are most in danger, where to locate emergency shelters, and what routes people should take to reach safety.Engineers use GIS technology to support the design, implementation, and management of communication networks for the phones we use, as well as the infrastructure necessary for Internet connectivity. Other engineers may use GIS to develop road networks and transportation infrastructure.There is no limit to the kind of information that can be analyzed using GIS technology. -
Term Part of Speech Definition Encyclopedic Entry accomplish Verb to succeed or complete a goal.
aerial photograph Noun picture of part of the Earth's surface, usually taken from an airplane.
align Verb to put in a straight line.
assess Verb to evaluate or determine the amount of.
assign Noun to give or distribute.
biologist Noun scientist who studies living organisms.
border Noun natural or artificial line separating two pieces of land.
Encyclopedic Entry: border boundary Noun line separating geographical areas.
Encyclopedic Entry: boundary cartographic Adjective having to do with maps and mapmaking.
crime Noun unlawful activity.
crucial Adjective very important.
current Noun steady, predictable flow of fluid within a larger body of that fluid.
Encyclopedic Entry: current data Plural Noun (singular: datum) information collected during a scientific study.
data capture Noun process of putting information into a geographic information system (GIS).
demographic Adjective having to do with the social characteristics and statistics of a population.
density Noun number of things of one kind in a given area.
Encyclopedic Entry: density development Noun construction or preparation of land for housing, industry, or agriculture.
digital Adjective having to do with numbers (or digits), often in a format used by computers.
distortion Noun representation that is twisted, mistaken, or false.
drone Noun unmanned aircraft that can be guided remotely.
earthquake Noun the sudden shaking of Earth's crust caused by the release of energy along fault lines or from volcanic activity.
elevation Noun height above or below sea level.
Encyclopedic Entry: elevation engineer Noun person who plans the building of things, such as structures (construction engineer) or substances (chemical engineer).
enroll Verb to enter or participate.
ethnicity Noun identity in a group sharing genetic characteristics, culture, language, religion, or history.
expensive Adjective very costly.
facility Noun a building or room that serves a specific function.
factory Noun one or more buildings used for the manufacture of a product.
farm Noun land cultivated for crops, livestock, or both.
fault Noun a crack in the Earth's crust where there has been movement.
federal Adjective having to do with a nation's government (as opposed to local or regional government).
flood Noun overflow of a body of water onto land.
Encyclopedic Entry: flood forest Noun ecosystem filled with trees and underbrush.
geographic information system (GIS) Noun any system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on the Earth's surface.
Encyclopedic Entry: GIS (geographic information system) geologist Noun person who studies the physical formations of the Earth.
grid Noun horizontal and vertical lines used to locate objects in relation to one another on a map.
hardware Noun computer machinery.
heat energy Noun a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature
hill Noun land that rises above its surroundings and has a rounded summit, usually less than 300 meters (1,000 feet).
Encyclopedic Entry: hill hurricane Noun tropical storm with wind speeds of at least 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour. Hurricanes are the same thing as typhoons, but usually located in the Atlantic Ocean region.
income Noun wages, salary, or amount of money earned.
inevitable Adjective certain to happen, unavoidable.
infrastructure Noun structures and facilities necessary for the functioning of a society, such as roads.
instream flow Noun measure of the cubic feet per second of water flowing in a specific area of a stream at a specific time.
Internet Noun vast, worldwide system of linked computers and computer networks.
landscape Noun the geographic features of a region.
Encyclopedic Entry: landscape land use Noun range of purposes people put to the earth.
latitude Noun distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees.
Encyclopedic Entry: latitude location Noun position of a particular point on the surface of the Earth.
Encyclopedic Entry: location longitude Noun distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees.
Encyclopedic Entry: longitude manipulate Verb to manage a complex device or situation with great skill.
map Noun symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface.
Encyclopedic Entry: map map projection Noun method by which shapes on a globe are transferred to a flat surface.
marketing Noun art and science of selling a product.
migration Noun movement of a group of people or animals from one place to another.
moisture Noun wetness.
natural disaster Noun an event occurring naturally that has large-scale effects on the environment and people, such as a volcano, earthquake, or hurricane.
neighborhood Noun an area within a larger city or town where people live and interact with one another.
Encyclopedic Entry: neighborhood node Noun beginning or ending point of an edge, arc or network of lines.
pixel Noun smallest part of an image displayed on an electronic screen.
polar Adjective having to do with the North and/or South Pole.
pollution Noun introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
Encyclopedic Entry: pollution polygon Noun geometric figure having three or more straight sides. In GIS, a closed shape on a map defined by a connected sequence of x, y coordinate pairs.
population Noun total number of people or organisms in a particular area.
power grid Noun network of cables or other devices through which electricity is delivered to consumers. Also called an electrical grid.
power line Noun cable or cord used to transfer electricity from a power plant to a population center. Also called a transmission line.
projection Noun flat representation of a sphere.
prone Adjective vulnerable or tending to act in a certain way.
raster data Noun spatial information organized as collections of cells that represent groups of data, such as elevations.
remote sensing Noun methods of information-gathering about the Earth's surface from a distance.
resource management Noun art and science of directing or negotiating the way people interact with the natural landscape. Also called natural resource management.
retail Adjective having to do with the sale of finished goods to consumers.
river Noun large stream of flowing fresh water.
Encyclopedic Entry: river road Noun path, usually paved, for vehicles to travel.
route Noun path or way.
satellite Noun object that orbits around something else. Satellites can be natural, like moons, or made by people.
satellite imagery Noun photographs of a planet taken by or from a satellite.
scale Noun relationship between distances shown on a map and actual distances.
scan Verb to transfer data, usually visual, on to a computer.
school district Noun geographic area whose schools are managed by one administration.
software Noun electronic programs of code that tell computers what to do.
soil Noun top layer of the Earth's surface where plants can grow.
spatial data Noun information used to pose, analyze, and resolve problems about the Earth's surface that reflect environmental and human processes.
storm drain Noun system to empty streets of excess rainwater. Storm drains flow into local creeks, rivers, or seas.
survey data Noun information gained from precisely measuring the surface of the land.
technology Noun the science of using tools and complex machines to make human life easier or more profitable.
three-dimensional Adjective having the appearance of width, height, and depth.
time-lapse photography Noun photographing of a slow and continuous process at regular intervals, for projection at a higher speed.
topography Noun study of the shape of the surface features of an area.
town Noun human settlement larger than a village and smaller than a city.
tributary Noun stream that feeds, or flows, into a larger stream.
Encyclopedic Entry: tributary upload Verb to transfer electronic information from a smaller computer to a larger computer.
valley Noun depression in the Earth between hills.
vector data Noun information representing the precise location in terms of a point, line or a shape.
vegetation Noun all the plant life of a specific place.
voting pattern Noun general way a specific population votes in political elections.
wetland Noun area of land covered by shallow water or saturated by water.
Encyclopedic Entry: wetland ZIP code Noun (zone improvement plan) series of numbers used to help locate an address for mail delivery.
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